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[left column]

THE BROADS OF [[EAST NORFOLK]].

MR. [[R. B. GRANTHAM]] read the following paper
on the Broads of [[East Norfolk]], having reference to
water supply, stowage, and drainage : -

The motive that has induced me to prepare a paper
for this meeting of the [[British Association]], is to draw
attention to the lakes, or, as they are locally called,
"broads," which are situatied in the eastern portion of
this county. The name was probably derived from the
Anglo Saxon, "Bradan" or "Bradene" (meaning to
widen or make broad), and from whence we may infer
that [[Breydon Water]], near [[Yarmouth]], took its name from
"Bradan" (Broad Water), being in fact a broad, but
having the tide flowing into and out of it, which does
not occur in the other broads. My connection with
this part of [[Norfolk]] has existed for four or five years,
and commenced by my being appointed by the Govern-
ment, and by virtue of my office as Inspector of Drainages,
to enquire into the applications from landowners for
powers to form drainage districts, as combined systems,
for the reclamation of marshes and swamps, contiguous
to and affected by these broads, and in river valleys. In
the course of my investigations, I was struck by the
existence of such bodies of water lying scattered over an
extensive area, and of varying sizes, which I believe to
be exceptional and singular, as not occuring in similar
geological formations in [[England]], and the only approach
to them will be found in the older formations, such as
mountain and volcanic regions. These have, however, a
very different cause for their origin. The coast of
[[Holland]], opposite to this of [[Norfolk]], is of the same
geological formation, and there similar broads exist.
The objects which may be attained by drawing special atten-
tion to these bodies of water, are to point out their existence
and positions, and to consider the uses that they may be
put to as a means of storing and supplying water to towns
and villages, and for agricultural purposes ; and also to
control and faciliatate the improvement of the lands on their
borders, or through which the streams flow into and out
of them, by combining drainage systems such as have
been already constituted in connection with some of them,
and in several other instances in other parts of the
kingdom. As instances of utilizing the waters of these
broads, and also of improving lands affected by them, I
will refer to the [[Great Yarmouth Water Works Company]]
taking water from [[Ormesby]], [[Rollesby]], and [[Filby]] broads
(possessing together an area of from 400 to 500 acres),
and supplying the town of [[Yarmouth]] and its neighbour-
hood ; and the cases of the improvement of land by
drainage as carried out at [[Martham]], [[Somerton]],
[[Winterton]], and [[Beccles]], and other places which are
about to be constituted drainage districts. In my
researches through works on geology, I have not met
with any allusion to the origin of the broads, and only
very slight notice of them. As their origin may prove
interesting to many and advantagous to others who may
wish to investigate the subject, I will endeavour to des-
cribe them, and the circumstances (as far as we have
information) attending the water-sheds of the rivres
with which these broads are connected. I propose as a
part of the consideration of this subject to refer to the
geology of the part of the country in which the broads
are situated. The general geological character of this
part of [[Norfolk]] consists of Post Tertiary, Alluvial,
Lacustrine and Estuarine deposits, contorted sand beds,
Upper and Lower Boulder clays, Laminated beds of clay,
resting on [[Norwich]] crag, which lies partly upon the
chalk and partly upon the [[London]] clay. It is estimated
that the chalk is about 400 ft. [feet] thick, and its general dip
is towards the south-east, and the principal drainage of
[[Norfolk]], comprised within that portion which is covered
by boulder clay and loam, conforms to the slope of the
chalk, the waters being discharged into the sea at [[Yar-
mouth]] ; and in like manner the drainage of four-fifths
of [[Suffolk]], including the great clay district, is conducted
by several channels towards the south-east coast of that
county, and there enters the sea. There is an interesting
collection of fossils from these formations in the Museum
of this city, and in the possession of those who have
investigated the geology of the county. They consist of
mollusca, remains of reptilia, ammonites and belemnites
of large sizes, and other shells, as well as the bones and
teeth of elephants, the mastodon, hippopotamus, rhino-
cerous, deer, and other animals, as well as fossil wood of
the forest bed north and south of [[Cromer]]. About the
year 1004, according to the [[Saxon]] chronicle, [[Sweyn]]
came with his fleet to [[Norwich]], which he plundered and
burnt. From this it may be inferred that the sea
flowed up the valley of the [[Yare]] to or near [[Norwich]],
and covered all that large alluvial plain bounded on the
north by the high ground of [[Caister]] and [[Runham]], and
up the valleys of the [[Bure]] and [[Yare]], and also of the
[[Waveney]], so as to enable small ships of light draught of
water to approach, at all events, near to [[Norwich]]. For
some time after the above period the land upon which
[[Yarmouth]] now stands was probably an island, there
being a northern channel called "[[Grubb's Haven]]," and a
southern channel. The northern channel was in existence
as late as the year 1347, after which period it was
silted up, and many thousands of acres of ground were
reclaimed and made good land. From this and other
evidence it is shown that the eastern valleys of [[Norfolk]]
were formerly branches of a wide estuary, and that the
present rivers and broads are the remains of that
large body of water. I have prepared a copy of the
ordnance map, upon which I have defined the water-
sheds- first, of the River [[Bure]] (coloured blue) and
of the River [[Yare]] (coloured pink) on which the
broads are shown in darker colours, and it shows
also these rivers and the [[Waveney]]. The tint
(which is darker than that of the watersheds), on both
sides of the rivers [[Bure]] and [[Yare]], represents the valleys
or levels which were probably overflowed by the rivers
or sea before they were banked out. I now proceed to
refer more particularly to the valleys of the rivers [[Bure]],
[[Yare]], and [[Waveney]], and their tributaries, the combined
watersheds of which extend over parts of [[Norfolk]] and

[center column]

[[Suffolk]], and embrace an area of 1,210 square miles, or
774,400 acres, that of the [[Bure]] being 338, the [[Yare]] 533,
and the [[Waveney]] 339 square miles. The valley of the
[[Bure]], and the broads in connection with it, is generally
on the crag formation, but the surface of the valley is
peat and alluvial to the width shwon by the shaded
colour on the map on each side of it. The [[Bure]] and the
[[Yare]] together drain more than half [[Norfolk]], the
[[Waveney]] draining only a small portion, but a large part
of [[Suffolk]]. The valley of the [[Yare]] is peat and alluvial,
as shown by the dark shading on the map. All these rivers
have generally a very slight inclination towards the sea,
as they rise in a low undulating country, and the currents
are consequently sluggish : they are capable of being
navigated by small craft for a considerable distance up
the country. For as far as the tides affect these rivers
their banks have been raised by earthen walls, and the
adjoining lands are thereby secured from being flooded.
The valleys are similar in their formation to all others,
consisting alternately of narrow passages, just wide
enough between the high lands for the rivers to flow
through, and wide epanses through which they wind.
It has been contended that the [[German Ocean]] was once
at a considerably higher level than at present, and that
it has since subsided, as shown by shells and marine
fauna having been found at an elevation of forty feet
above the beds of the rivers ; but this is more probably
due to the upheavals and depressions in the deposits
which have evidently taken place at different periods in
the world's existence. There is no evidence for
the last nine hundred years of any receding
of the sea having been observed on this coast. The
formation of peat and alluvial on both sides of the
channels of the rivers and their tributaries, as shown on
the map, indicates that the vegetation grew there, and
died and decomposed, and that the alluvial consists
of the detritus which was washed down the valleys by
the rivers from the high ground, and filled them up, and
confined their channels, leaving large spaces, which were
probably deeper than the rivers themselves, and they
became the broads, which in their turn have become less
and less in size by the deposit of decayed vegetation, and
of sand and mud from streams ; but the cutting and
taking away the reeds from their banks may have
arrested the accumulation of the vegetable matter in
them. There is a singular fact connected with the
formation of the broads, and that is, that not one of
them is in the course of the rivers with which they are
connected ; but, although they are in the same valley
with the river, they are from one quarter of a mile to
three-and-half miles out of their line on one side or the
other. But some of them have navigable channels
through them, some of which are artificial, and others
natural. The larger number of the broads are situated
in the valley of the [[Bure]] and its tributaries, there being
there 22 of all sizes, in the [[Yare]] 4, and in the [[Waveney]]
3. The following is a list of them and their extent in
acreage, amounting to 25,472 acres, those on the [[Bure]]
containing 22,891 acres, and those on the [[Yare]] 2,581
acres.

ON THE RIVER BURE AND ITS TRIBUTARIES.

[in italics] Name of Broad.== ==Acres. [end italics]
[[Ormesby]], [[Rollesby]], and [[Filby]]....464.9
[[Walsham]]....62.1
[[Ranworth]]....117.6
[[Little]]....13.3
[[Decoy]]....22.0
[[Salhouse]]....22.8
[[Burnt Fen]]....11.7
[[Hoveton Little]] ....57.6
[[Hoveton Great]]....121.5
[[Wroxham]]....92.4
[[Bridge]]....12.8
[[Belaugh]]....12.0

On the [[River Ant]]
[[Catfield]]....22.4
[[Oliver]]....23.0
[[Barton]]....229.6
[[Stalham]]....75.6
[[Dillham]]....17.6

On the [[Hundred Stream]]
[[Hickling]] & [[Whitesley]]....578.0
[[Womack]]....25.5
[[Chapmans]]....46.8
[[Martham]]....115.5
[[Horsey]]....130.6
[[Calthorpe]]....13.8
[underline]
2289.1

On the [[River Yare]].
[[Buckenham]]....20.0
[[Strumpshaw]]....17.1
[[Rockland]]....117.0
[[Surlingham]]....104.0
[underline]
258.1

Total....2547.2

The next question which arises in endeavouring to ac-
count or the existence of these broads is that of their
depths, which vary very much. In [[Ormesby]], [[Rollesby]],
and [[Filby]] Broads, on the North side of the [[Bure]] (which
although having three names is really only one broad )
at the surface of the water is about two or three feeet above
the high water of the [[Bure]] at the sluices at the end of
[[Muckfleet]]. It is said to be 20 feet deep in some places,
which would make its bottom considerably lower than
low water in the sea. The bottom of [[Martham]] Broad is
nearly on a level with low water at the sea, and its depth
of water is about four feet, which, owing to the distance
from the sea, being 20 miles by the river, is not affected
by the rise and fall of the tides, except when a north-
west wind drives it into the [[Haven]] at [[Yarmouth]], and
backs it up at the broad. The state of the weather very
much influences the state of this and the other broads
which flow into the [[Hundred]] stream. Probably the
bottoms of many of the other broads may be below the
level of the sea, which, if it should be so, the depressions
and upheavings of the formation will account for. The
bottoms of the [[Hickling]], the [[Whitesley]], and the [[Horsey]]
Broads are also on a level with the sea. River beds are
not unfrequently lower than the low water of the sea,
and this occurs far up their courses away from the sea.
In some cases this may be traced to the force of currents
deepening them, but in the broads there are no currents
or other disturbances to cause an excavation of the
bottom. All these broads are supplied by streams run-

[right column]

ning into them from minor valleys and springs
which take their rise in these formations, to which
they form teh catchment basins or reservoirs. I
have no doubt that they are performing a most
important and useful part in the economy of water
supply by detaining superabundant quantities of water
from storms and continuous wet weather, and they pre-
vent innundations in the lower parts of the country by
affording time, where the inclination in the main valley
is so slight and the velocity naturally slow, for floods to
pass off at each successive low tide. As is well known,
the [[Yare]] and [[Waveney]] meet and run into [[Breydon]]
Water, and the [[Bure]] joins them in their entrance into the
harbour ; the three rivers then passing through [[Yarmouth]]
and the haven to the sea. The passage for the discharge
of water from 1,210 square miles of country appears small
but as the tide flows up all these rivers, the ebb tide has
also to pass off, and this large body of water flowing out
is highly necessary for scouring out the harbour, and
preventing the accumulation of sand at the bar of the
harbour. I am strongly of opinion that it would be
most desirable to deepen the whole of the [[Breydon]] water
to below low water, and impound a larger body of back-
water, and there by further increase the scour at the bar.
The deepening of [[Breydon]] water would also improve the
discharge of the waters of the [[Yare]] and the [[Waveney]].
Having thus far discussed the condition and circum-
stances relative to the water question of this part of
[[Norfolk]], I will proceed to suggest the practical advan-
tages to be derived from the capabilities of such quanti-
ties of water as these "broads" possess of storing and
supplying water. The following is a statement of the
rainfall in this county in each year for seven years,
which shows an average of 24.41 inches, the maximum
in one year being upwards of 100 per cent. above the
minimum :-

[Year ...] Inches.
1860....33.2
1861....22.2
1862....24.9
1863....18.6
1864....16.1
1865....29.6
1866....26.3
[underline]
Mean....24.41

Although the available amount of water exclusive of
soakage and evaporation may not be more than four
inches over the while of these watersheds, the broads in
fulfilling their characters of collectors and reservoirs
may be increased one foot in depth on the average over
their aggregate areas, and are capable of supplying
678,696,900 gallons beyond their ordinary contents. If
this quantity can be utilized by the neighbouring popu-
lations for all purposes, they need never fear the want
of water in such seasons as that which we have lately
experienced, and the quantity of water that the broads
usually contain is always a permanent supply. The
broads are not generally at such elevations as to allow of
the supply being delivered by gravitation, except for
long distances, but it must be lifted by machinery. It
is possible to unite the power for drainage purposes with
that of distribution. With regard to the drainage in
connection with the broads, I do not contemplate con-
verting them into agricultural land, which I should not
recommend, as compared with the very great importance
of keeping them as reservoirs, particularly those of large
areas in which the water would continue good and
wholesome, and not unfit for domestic use. The land to
be acquired by draining the broads if it were possible
would amount to 2500 acres which is a trifling quantity
as compared with that which may be reclaimed round
about them, or with the quantities which might be
improved in many other parts of this county. The
drainage I would recommend is that of the marshes and
swamps which are mostly caused by the "broads" and
the rivers in connection with them. Most of the lands
that I have seen in this state would be highly
productive and profitable if they can be deprived of
the surplus water, and maintained so ; at the
same time I would secure the means of using the water
for irrigation if necessary. The conversion of the
marshes into profitable and remunerative land need not
interfere with the impounding and storing the water in
the "broads." At the present time I am carrying out
the operation of draining some marshes at [[Hemsby]],
which have been rendered totally valueless by their prox-
imity to one of the largest "broads," and the result to
the owner will be equal to the purchase of so much land
at a cheap rate, and the improvement of a larger
quantity. By the imporvement of so much land a large
amount of additional employment would be given to the
population, of a permanent character. In many cases
the reclamation is an addition to an estate. The healthi-
ness of the localities would be increased, and although
large bodies of water may be objected to, I do not con-
sider them so injurious as the miasma arising from the
evaporation and exhalation from the decaying of the
vegetation of large tracts of marshes, which is the chief
cause of fever and ague in the tropics, and other simi-
larly circumstanced counties and districts.

A vote of thanks having been given to Mr. [[Gran-
tham]] for his paper-

Mr. [[HAWKESLEY]] said there was much in the
paper just read in which he concurred, especially as
to drainage, but there were some matters upon
which, as a water engineer, he differed from Mr.
[[Grantham]]. The most important use to which some
of the [[Norfolk]] broads had been put, was the supply
of two large towns in the neighbourhood. [[Yar-
mouth]], with a population of 40,000 and [[Lowestoft]],
with a population of 14,000 or 15,000. One impor-
tant matter for consideration was the amount of
evaporation to which the water in the broads was
subjected, and it was found from actual experience
that the [[Ormsby]] broad evaporated not less than
30 inches per annum. In the chalk district the
supply of water was very steady. The river [[Wen-
sum]] flowed from deep stone and chalk springs,
and crags from which there was no evaporation,